Homework: With reference to religious teaching outline determinism and libertarianism. 30 marks

For determinists everything that happens is caused by a prior event, the law of causality. The idea states that there are laws of nature that govern everything that happens and therefore an external force causes all our actions. Because of this, within determinism, free will is an illusion and moral responsibility is flawed. This perspective can be observed within Christian teaching and is most often referred to as ‘predestination’. An example of this is Augustine’s writing on Divine Election in which he states “The potter has authority over the clay, to make on vessel for honour and another for contempt”. This suggests that before birth God has already elected who will go to Heaven and Hell and eliminates any concept of humans having freedom to shape their own future. This is reinforced by teachings such as Ecclesiastes 3:1 which claims there is an “appointed time for everything” and the Calvinist approach which sees predestination as the “eternal decree of God”.

In opposition to this, Libertarianism rejects the belief in determination and view humans as free autonomous agents who are therefore responsible for all their actions. This is also the traditional Judeo-Christian approach on human free will. An example is within The Fall in Genesis, in which Adam and Eve exercise their free will by eating the forbidden fruit and by doing so, disobey God and bring sin into the world. This is also discussed by the Christian Theologian Aquinas, who argues, “man chooses not out of necessity, but freely” (Summa Theologica). He argues that using ones reason to free oneself from passions or desires brings about human free will. Equally Mark Talbot introduces the concept of Imago Dei Voluntatis, which argues that because humans are in God’s image, we are free just as he is.

However, a problem with religious concepts of free will is the idea that God is omniscient, because if God is seen to know everything past, present and future, surely the actions we consider as freely made are actually already set and determined. For example the verse in Psalm 139 “Before the word is on my tongue, O Lord, you know it completely” reveals God to know all our actions before we have made them. This problem of Divine Foreknowledge can be seen to have led to a middle way between determinism and libertarianism, the approach of Compatibilism. This is the idea that it is possible to be both free and determined as some aspects of our nature are determined due to prior events but our ability to make free decisions is not undermined by these. Within Christianity this can be interpreted as shown in Proverbs 16:9 and the idea that “the heart of man plays his way, but the Lord establishes his steps”.

Human Free Will and Determinism

The concepts of Determinism, Compatibilism and Libertarianism are key to our understanding of human free will, or the lack of it. They also raise questions as to whether we can truly be held responsible for our actions. Because if, as determinists argue, all our actions are pre-determined and brought about by past events, how can anyone ever be held responsible for any action they take?

Taking this approach of thinking on human freedom can be problematic however, as it defeats any desire to ever do anything and all becomes meaningless!  It is also arguably difficult to believe that every action a person makes has already been decided, because whilst we make these choices, we feel a sense of freedom.

As mentioned, another theory on human free will is that of Libertarianism. This is the opposite of determinism and instead argues that we are free autonomous agents who are able to make free moral choices. However, libertarians do not argue for absolute freedom, as our bodies and minds are formed by genetics and develop in certain environments. Because of this, they would argue we each have a pre disposition to certain behaviors and therefore; there are set limits on the choices we make.

 It can be argued that this, along with the similar ideas of soft determinists, is a far more realistic approach to the concept of free will as it both views humans as free in their choice and therefore responsible, whilst also paying attention to how cultural, genetic and other external factors can affect how a person acts and how free they are in making certain choices.

Revision for 'Nature and Value of Human Life' Topic- Human Nature and the Human Condition

Imago Dei

• Only Human beings (Genesis 1: 26-8- "Let us make humans in our image") Moral, spiritual, stewards. 
•  Ability to reason- Ancient and medieval Xian theologians. E.g. Irenaeus of Lyons: Distinction between image and likeness (loss of image in the fall) only through excepting Gods grace and love and the redeeming action of Christ that we can be restored to his image (salvation history) 
• After reformation: Imago Dei = self consciousness (Schleiermacher) and relationship with God (Karl Barth and Martin Luther)
• Modern theologian: Influenced by interpretations above whilst also the added influence of science which clearly stresses human continuity with nature through our evolutionary heritage-Langdon Gilkey and Gregory R. Peterson = all of nature should be understood as in the 'image of God' 

Alternative- 

•  Human beings are sentient beings who interact with others and have preferences concerning continued life. (Peter Singer)
• A human is any being capable of valuing its own life (John Harris)
• These both have ethical implications as a baby, foetus or someone with brain abnormalities would (by these principles) not qualify as human whilst a chimpanzee or dolphin would. 

Dominant idea in Xianity: Our relationship with God defines humanity from the rest of nature: 

• Imago Dei also means we are constantly reminded by each other of God and our relationship with him. 
• Golden rule- Reinforces idea of stewardship 

Link : God is within us? 

• 1 Corinthians 6:19-20 "Your body is Gods temple" 
• 2nd Vatican Council " Conscience is the sanctuary of man, there he is alone with God" (shows relationship with God through this) 

Humans are relational: 

1. Nicene Creed: Interrelationship between Father, Son and Holy Spirit.("By the power of the Holy Spirit He [being The Father] was made incarnate [being Jesus]")
2. Principle conferred onto humanity through teaching of Imago Dei (Gen 1:26-8)
3. Reinforced by Golden Rule "Love your neighbor as yourself (Mark 12:31)

Humans= Posterior

Rather than stating how we are different to things 'below' such as animals, C.S Lewis explores the idea that we are different from the sublime as we have a sensory experiance of the world. Our ability to feel pain and pleasure defines us as 'humans' " The pleasure and the pang --can angels measure it?

An angel has no nose." -On Being Human 

Humans are dependent on God: 
-Exist because of God (Genesis 1-3) (Psalm 139-13)Lord u created all my inner parts...you knit me together" 

Humans are rational: 

• T. Aquinas developed ideas of Aristotle: Humans are on same level as rest of creation but with added rationality. 
• Augustine developed ideas of Plato: Eternity of Human Soul 

Original Sin: 

• Genesis 3:1-20Condition of Humanity. The reason we suffer pain, toil and death. 
• As result of Adam and Eves disobedience to God, Humans are now separated from God (an epistemic distance- distance of understanding). Thus bringing dissatisfaction and guilt into our lives. 
• It is only by accepting Gods grace, love and forgiveness that we will be saved (salv history) 

Doctrine of Original Sin largely originated from Augustine: 

• Born into sinful state (Tendency to sin- Concupiscence) 
• we have Free Will (Humans are free) 
• Because original sin was utterly a free choice it was ever more serious resulting in damnation from all humanity (as now concupiscence is seminally present in all of humanity)

Westermann: These stories are not historical but illustrations of how humans can rebel against God and the outcome of this. He argues that Sinfullness in an aspect of human nature. 

Revision for 'Nature and Value of Human Life' Topic- Value of Human Life

Imago Dei: 

The teaching of humans being in the image of God (seen in Genesis 1:26-8 'then God said "let us make humans in our image") is the basis on Christian thought on the value of human life. This teaching has been vital in christian approaches to issues such as abortion and Euthanasia but also approaches about war and the taking of human life in war. Leading to Pacifism and the Just War theory.

Pacifism:

-This belief is rooted in Western Christianity and particularly in the early church with Xians seeing Jesus to teach that bearing arms is prohibited an example seen by peoples refusal to fight for the Roman Army.

-This belief looks to the gospels which record how Jesus which record how Jesus called his followers not too use violence but to use sacrificial love. ("Blessed are the peacemakers" Matthew 5:9) -These themes are rooted in Jewish Prophetic tradition and followers see his ministry and sacrificial death as continuation of this tradition.

-Pacifism became minority view under Emperor Constantine's rule and christian thought on war was changed.

-HOWEVER: There are still influential peace churches which continue this early tradition. Examples of this are: - Quakers, Mennonites, Bruderhof Brethren and the Amish.  

Quakers: 

• Founded at time of Civil War (1642) 
• Violence= More violence
• Separation between 'church' and 'world' 

Most of these Peace Churches were not against use of military as they believed the state must defend itself and is a necessary vehicle for social order but that they themselves would not join in. They will have followed St. Paul's for Romans 13 "Let everyone be subject to governing authorities...these exist as they have been instituted by God." 

Peace Churches for example Quakers did not believe in 'doing nothing' but importance of taking non violent action. Examples of this is:

• Martin Luther King Jr. who used forceful language, peaceful protests and strikes for racial equality in the USA-  It could be argued he had been heavily influenced by Ghandi who advocated Ahimsa or 'Zest for Truth'

However this apparent minority view also became a part of many christian denominations. Both Catholic and Protestant parties supported this idea and its approach to the subject of war. 

A Catholic example is Thomas Merton (A Catholic monk) who renounced violence as a way to peace. 

"It is my intention to make my entire life a rejection of, a protest against the crimes and injustices of war" 

Becauase of this Catholic pacifism in now more common and supported by the Vatican. 

A mainstream Protestant view on this is shown my Walter Wink. Who criticizes Augustines use of violence to defend the innocent and the whole Just War theory. 

Just War Theory: 

Thought the early church taught that use of violence was wrong it also taught that the state/government was responsible for maintaining order SO when the Roman Empire became Christian the church had to reconcile response to self sacrifice, the value of human life on one hand but also Gods justification of death for protecting innocents. 

Therefore The A Team, Ambrose, Augustine and later Thomas Aquinas put forward principles to why war may be justified in Gods eyes. These were divided into Jus ad Bellum (Principles for going to war) and Jus in Berro (Principles for the conduct of War)  

 

Jus ad Bellum consisted of:

• Just Cause (protection of innocent)
• Just authority ( gov or ruler) 
• Right intention (protection of innocent life)
• Last resort (all else has failed)
• Proportionality (good results beat bad ones)
• Probability of Success

Jus in Berro consisted of: 

• proportionality (good larger than harm) 
• discrimination ( only against those who threaten innocent life) 

• Jus Post Bello was later introduced which was Just Principles for after war. 

Fatalism, Determinism and predestination with examples: For this I am going to use the choice I made to do R.S A level to show the differences: 

A fatalistic approach to me 'choosing' to take R.S A level would be that I had no freedom in doing so, but that every single action I had made before taking it was out of my control. 

A deterministic approach to me taking this A level would be that I would eventually take the A level but that my path to doing so could take many different routes but I would always end up taking the A level, it is based around the idea of a casual nexus (a web of different actions leading to the ultimate action-taking R.S) 

A predestined approach would be that an ultimate being (God) has chosen for me to take R.S A level and therefore I am taking it. 

The good girls and the bad girls of the Bible.

Within the current topic of Religious Studies, we have been studying how women are portrayed within the Bible. It seems that many are either incredibly virtuous and virginal and therefore untouchable (e.g Mary) or are the personification of Evil. For this blog I am looking at some of these women and how they qualify as either 'good' or 'bad'.

The 'Good' Girls: Esther, Ruth and Mary. 

Esther- A Jewish queen of the Persian king Ahaseurus (traditionally known as Xerxes). Within Esther 8:5-6 Esther is shown to tell King Xerxes about Haman's plan to kill all the Jews in the Kings provinces and exclaim "how can I bear to see the destruction of my own family" Through doing this Esther is shown as compassionate as she wants save people from being killed, a hope that only good, moral and kind people would hold. There is also emphasis on the idea that she wants to protect the people who she views as her family linking with the idea of being her being maternal.
It could also be argued that Esther show her character to be loyal to the king. This is also effective in portraying her in a positive way as she is serving not only her own wishes but also assisting another.

Ruth- Ruth is also shown to be a 'good' women within the Bible and an example of this is the loyalty and selflessness she shows after her husbands death by staying with her mother-in-law (Naomi) rather than leaving to get re-married.  This is shown in Ruth 1:16 "...Where you go I will go, and where you stay I will stay. Your people will be my people and your God my God...". This is shows that Ruth has a life beyond serving and loving her husband and that a relationship with another woman had formed which is also very important and lived beyond her husbands death. It could be argued that this shows women's independence within the Bible, a definite idea of what she wanted and unarguable loyalty to Naomi and her husband himself. However verse 16 could also be seen to show a women who is utterly reliant on another person and that because her husband had died she then transitioned this dependence onto her mother-in-law. 
It could also been seen that Ruth is 'good' because she eventually marries Boaz (a relative of her husbands) not only helping herself but also securing Naomi's future through reconnecting them with her dead husbands family. 

Mary- Within Luke 1:26 Mary states "I am the Lord's servant...may it be to me what you have said". This reflects Mary's humble nature, suggesting she is blessed to be noticed by God and is prepared and trusting of Gods plan for her. This idea links with 'The Magnificat' (Luke 1:46-55) which is a song Mary sings as thanks for God's grace. With this however it cannot be ignored that Mary does not even briefly doubt or ponder on the idea that she will be impregnated by the Holy Spirit and birth Jesus. With this comes the idea that a 'good' women is a female who is compliant with other peoples/God's plans. However being obedient to God is an important Jewish belief as a whole and not just specific to Mary and therefore the significance of this act of obedience to God is arguably varied. 

The Bad Girls: Eve and Potiphar's Wife 

Eve- Within the Book of Genesis Eve is seen to be sinful, superficial and weak as shown in Chapter 3:6-7 "...that it was a delight to the eyes, and that the tree was to be desired to make one wise, she took of its fruit and ate, and she also gave some to her husband who was with her, and he ate" In this passage Eve is shown to desire things that are appealing in looks, showing her as superficial and also weak as despite being told not to eat the fruit she is incapable of resisting because of its appearance.
 Through eating the forbidden fruit Eve also brings Sin into Gods perfect world and corrupts Adam whilst doing so. Through this it seems that whilst its suggested women are put on earth as helpers to Men they rather hinder them instead and this explores the idea that a women with too much control or perhaps simply equality within their relationships are set to cause destruction and sin. This idea is reinforced in Chapter 3: 17 of Genesis in which God states "..Because you have heeded the voice of your wife..". 

Potiphar's Wife- Within Genesis 39 Potiphar's wife is shown to attempt to seduce her husbands Attendant Joseph and when unsuccessful accuses Joseph of trying to sleep with her, resulting in Josephs arrest. Essentially this lady is at the heart of massive injustice. One aspect of Potiphar's wife which is viewed as 'bad' or 'impure' is her desire for sex; showing signs of low self respect and self worth and this is shown in Genesis 39: 7 when she exclaims to Joseph " Come to bed with me". She is also portrayed to be alike to the serpent in Genesis 3 through her seductive and tempting nature. This is effective in outlining women's want to turn man from God and is once again reinforced by Josephs questioning in verse 9 "...How then could I do such a wicked thing and sin against God?”

In conclusion, the Bible holds both positive and negative imagery of women. It seems the 'goodies' can hold both desirable and expected qualities of a 'good women' however for me they also seem uncomfortably  passive and compliant. In contrast the 'baddies' are functional in showing some obvious, fair and necessary depictions of what being 'bad' is, however these also seem  degrading, blaming and misleading. 

What does it mean to be Human?

Examine religious teachings about what it means to be human (30 marks)

For Christians an important and defining aspect of what it means to be human is the idea that humans are relational, between one and other and with God. This is shown within the Nicene Creed and the belief in the Holy Trinity, the interrelationship between the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. This is then conferred onto humanity through the Christian teaching of Imago Dei, Genesis 1:26-27 “God created man in his own image”.  This is further reinforced by the Golden Rule which states “Love you neighbor as yourself”. Therefore a key Christian belief about what it means to be human is that we are able and naturally do create relationships with other beings, both supreme and human.

Another religious teaching about what it means to be human is that we are created by God. Within the book of Genesis 2:7 God creates man. He “forms man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life”. This shows that as humans we exist entirely because of God’s grace and omnipotence and are perhaps dependent on God from birth to death and for eternity. Another key point is that God is shown to create Adam and Eve on the sixth day, the last and perhaps most important creation. However it could be interpreted that with this apparent high status comes ‘stewardship, the idea that humans are expected and entrusted to take care of the whole of God’s creation and that therefore the title of what it means to human comes with the ability to take care; feel love, passion and responsibility for something larger than oneself.

Psalm 139 is another Christian teaching which explores Gods creation of us, within this psalm it describes “For it was you who formed my inward parts, you knit me together in my mother’s womb” (139:13) This creates an image that humans are not only created by God but that also when creating us God paid attention to all aspects of mankind, not only the outside body and the character but also the insides of each of us. It also suggests that humans are created as complex and perhaps even fragile. This is apparent due to the use of the word ‘knit’ linking to both complexities in its patterns but also to being fragile as knitted materials are not massively strong. This links idea links with the Christian Theologian C.S Lewis’s poem “On being Human” which explores the idea that whilst angels understand the world on a purely intelligence-based level, humans grow and develop with experience and the feelings of both pleasure and pain. This idea that God created us with the ability to feel hurt or broken could also be linked to argument that suffering is character building (St. Iranaeus) and that a key part of being human is the ability to feel pain.